The Ecumenical Councils and the Coup of Pauline Paganism Over Arian Monotheism
Emperor Constantine’s participation, a pagan politician at the time provided a ‘political middle-ground’ between his Christian and Pagan subjects by effectively clothing Greco-Roman mythology with Semitic Christian names. The expression ‘Son of God’ replaced the mythological demigod or God-Emperor. The ‘Church’ became the vehicle of the state to preside over religion and faith and secular rulers began exerting extraordinary influence over ecclesiastical affairs.
Authors: Dr. Najmuddin Hasan and Ahmed Hammuda
In the previous article, we explored the varying views on Prophethood in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, focusing on law, intercession, and restoration respectively. The article shed light on the composition and origins of the New Testament, underscoring the significance of the Council of Jerusalem and Paul’s pivotal role in shaping what is now recognized as ‘Pauline’ Christianity. It discussed Paul’s distinctive emphasis on the claim of Christ’s divinity and his desire to separate Christianity from the Mosaic law, followed by Jesus, which created a divide between him and Christ’s twelve apostles, ultimately leading to a schism. This constitutes a foundational point for tracing the historical evolution of Trinitarian Christianity and the ensuing theological debates briefly touched upon in this article.
As Christianity spread in its earliest days, tensions arose as early Christians rejected Roman pagan practices and the worship of Roman deities. Christians were persecuted for alleged crimes, including ‘introducing a foreign cult’, and ‘treason’. The first major persecution occurred under Emperor Nero, around 64CE and subsequent waves took place under Marcus Aurelius, Decius, and Valerian.
During this time, the followers of Christ refrained from attending pagan festivals and engaging in occupations connected to the polytheistic culture of Rome. The Romans often blamed Christians for public calamities, resulting in calls for their persecution. The Diocletianic persecution was the final widespread persecution of the followers of Christ, lasting until the issuance of the Edict of Milan in 313CE by Constantine and Licinius. This brought a degree of religious toleration, allowing all religions, including Christianity, to be practiced openly.
The Council of Nicaea in 325AD marked a pivotal development in early Christianity. Emperor Constantine’s participation, a pagan politician at the time provided a ‘political middle-ground’ between his Christian and Pagan subjects by effectively clothing Greco-Roman mythology with Semitic Christian names.
The expression ‘Son of God’ replaced the mythological demigod or God-Emperor. The ‘Church’ became the vehicle of the state to preside over religion and faith and secular rulers began exerting extraordinary influence over ecclesiastical affairs. This pattern continued for many centuries, resulting in the politicisation of religious institutions and the erosion of checks and balances between the state and religious leadership. The main aim of the council was to establish Christian ‘orthodoxy’ following the spread of large theological differences in the Christian community concerning the nature of Christ.
Arius of Alexandria (d. 336CE) and his followers (the Arians) asserted that Christ was a created being, brought into existence by God as His initial act before all ages, implying that there was a period when He did not exist. Arius also posited that the ‘son’, Jesus, possessed the ability to exercise free will and discern right from wrong. He contended that if the son were truly a genuine son, He would have come into being subsequent to the Father, thus indicating that there was a time when He was non-existent and therefore limited in nature.[1]
In support of this stance, the Arians referred to scriptural passages, such as John 14:28, where Jesus declares that “the Father is greater than I.” Alexander of Alexandria (d. 326AD) and the Nicene fathers, instead, argued for the eternal existence and equality of the son with the Father, though making no mention of the Holy Spirit, the divinity of whom was a concoction reserved to later decades.
The council ultimately rejected Arianism, burnt the books of Arius, labelled Arianism a heresy and adopted the Pauline doctrine that deified Christ. This was far more apt with pre-existing Hellenistic concepts, separated from the Judaic, monotheistic creed of Jesus and Moses and shaping the future of Christianity as an independent theology. Early Christian theologians, such as Athanasius and the Cappadocian Fathers (early to late 4th Century), played key roles in formulating the doctrine of the Trinity, forging the idea of the equality and co-eternality of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and further stigmatising what remained of Arianism after Nicea.
The council ultimately adopted the Hellenistic concepts within the Christianity of the early non-Jewish Christians. Constantine I who was a pagan throughout nearly all of his life and rule, heavily influenced what constitutes the canonised or ‘Orthodox’ scripts of today, deeming, discarding or burning the rest as ‘heresies’.
Ironically, historians suggest that Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian priest and a fervent supporter of Arius baptised Constantine I on his deathbed in 337AD.[2] Other narratives claim Constantine I receiving an ‘Orthodox’ baptism, but scholars have dismissed these as intentional historical forgeries to “amend the memory of the Arian baptism.”[3] Constantine I’s son, Constantius II was so influenced by Eusebius that he heeded his advice in attempting to convert the entire Roman Empire into Arianism,[4] despite his father previously relegating it to heresy.
After some years, Emperor Theodosius I, a staunch advocate of Nicene Christianity reigning from 379CE to 395CE, initiated a series of actions to quell Arianism and advance the Nicene Creed across the Roman Empire. His undertakings were geared towards forging religious harmony and consolidating the status of orthodox Christianity.
Key measures taken by Theodosius included the issuing of the Edict of Thessalonica, which declared Nicene Christianity as the state religion and branded Arianism as heretical.[5] He actively persecuted Arian clergy, closed Arian churches, and forbade Arian assemblies in an attempt to supress the spread of Arian beliefs. Theodosius also confiscated Arian property, imposed the death penalty for Arian practices, and banished prominent Arian leaders. These actions helped consolidate the dominance of Nicene Christianity and marked a significant chapter in the history of early Christian orthodoxy.[6]
In May 381CE, Emperor Theodosius convened a council of bishops in Constantinople. By this time, all dissenting views had been declared illegal, and only those who adhered to the Nicene Creed were allowed to participate in the ‘ecumenical’ council. Unsurprisingly, the council that outlawed the participation of Arians confirmed the Nicene Creed and ‘promoted’ the Holy Spirit to the divine triune, alongside the father and the son. Unmistakably, the decision on what will constitute Orthodoxy was a matter decided, even before any council had been convened.
“Thirty-six Pneumatomachians sought entry but were denied access to the council due to their refusal to accept the Nicene creed.”[7]
Subsequent Ecumenical Councils, convening numerous scholars, bishops, and clergymen from the empire, defined particular degrees of divinity attributed to Jesus. These councils persistently denounced opposing viewpoints and imposed excommunication. Lower Christology reflects the demigod model, depicting the ascent of humanity to divinity. Conversely, higher Christology aligns with the Avatar concept, portraying Jesus Christ as the embodiment of God.
Schools of Christian Thought and Ecumenical Councils Per Chronology
“Jesus declared, ‘Surely Allāh is my Lord and your Lord, so worship Him ˹alone˺. This is the Straight Path.’ Yet their ˹various˺ groups differed among themselves ˹about him – Jesus˺, so woe to the disbelievers when they face a tremendous Day!”[8]
The following list summarises the outcomes of the ecumenical councils in chronological order:
1 – 325AD: First Council of Nicaea: presided over by Emperor Constantine I
Developed the ‘Nicene Creed’ – that Jesus is begotten and was not created and is of the same substance as God the Father.
2 – 381AD: First Council of Constantinople: presided over by Emperor Theodosius I
The excommunications and declarations of heresy concerning all forms of Arianism and Macedonianism, assert that Christ is “born of the Father before creation” and, together with the uncreated Holy Spirit, form the Trinity.
3 – 431AD: Council of Ephesus: presided over by Emperor Theodosius II
Refutation of Nestorianism which postulated that the bodily Jesus contained the separate Jesus the God and Jesus the Man. Furthermore, declaring the Virgin Mary as the ‘Theotokos’, (Mother of God), remains created and human and affirming the inheritance of original sin – refuting Pelagianism.
4 – 451AD: Council of Chalcedon: presided over by Emperor Marcian
Chalcedonian Definition (Dyophysitism): Jesus Christ is described as one reality begotten of God with two natures one Divine and one Human. Rejection of Monophysitism which postulated Jesus Christ had only one nature after the union of the divine and human in the historical incarnation.
5 – 553AD: Second Council of Constantinople: presided over by Emperor Justinian I
Further condemnation of Nestorianism and (futile) attempt to reconcile with Monophysitism.
6 – 680AD: Third Council of Constantinople: presided over by Emperor Constantine IV
Further refutation of Monothelitism which postulated that the Divine Will and Human Will were one.
(753AD: Synod of Hieria: Presided over by Emperor Constantine V)
(Declaring that images of Jesus, Mary and the Saints were forms of idolatry)
7 – 787AD: Second Council of Nicaea: presided over by Emperor Constantine VI
This Council restored the veneration of icons and ended the first iconoclasm.
Early Christianity faced persecution due to its conflict with Roman paganism. The Council of Nicaea, led by Emperor Constantine, played a crucial role in merging Roman and Christian theology. Subsequent councils and the rejection and excommunication of Arianism influenced the development of modern, ‘orthodox’ Christian beliefs. In the next article, we will explore various Christian theological positions and modern interpretations of Arianism.
References:
[1] “Arianism | Definition, History, & Controversy | Britannica”. http://www.britannica.com. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
[2] Jerome (380). Chronicon. Retrieved 24 March 2021. Constantine, baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia at the very end of his life, falls into the dogma of Arius, and from that time until now seizures of churches and discord of the whole world have followed.
[3] Canella, Tessa (January 2018). “Sylvester I”. Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. Academia.edu: 2. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
[4] Guitton, “Great Heresies and Church Councils”, pp.86.
[5] Edict of Thessalonica: Scholarly Community Encyclopedia
[6] Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). “Theodosius I” . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
[7] Wikipedia: First Council of Constantinople
[8] Qur’ān 19:37
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